Chapter 3 National Contexts

3.1 Overview

13. The preceding chapter has highlighted the methodological approach employed in the preparation of the NAP and Chapter 3 provides a situation analysis at country level. The focus of the analyses is on the geographical, socio-economic, policy and institutional issues which the NAP is prepared to address. The national contexts provides the basis for strategic goals, objection and actions with priority adaptation options presented the subsequent chapter.

3.2 Geographical Context

14. Geographically located in Southern Africa, Malawi is landlocked, bordering with Mozambique, Zambia and Tanzania (Figure 1). The country has an estimated population of 18.6 million (2019), which is expected to double by 2038. With The country has a total area of 118,484 km2 of which 20% is covered by Lake Malawi. It has a total population of about 18 million people with a growth rate of 3.06%. Malawi continues to enjoy a stable and democratic government.

Figure 1 – South-east Africa showing the location of Malawi

15. The country’s topography is heterogenous with mountainous landscapes surrounding the Rift Valley, plateaus rising generally 800m to 1,200m above sea level, although some rise as high as 3,000m in the north. To the south of Lake Malawi lies the Shire Highlands, approximately 900m above sea level. The climate is tropical, but the influence of its high elevation means that temperatures are relatively cool. The warm-wet season stretches from November to April, during which 95% of the annual precipitation takes place.

Figure 2 – Variation in Topography of Malawi that influences climatic heterogeneity.

16. Much of the land surface of Malawi is a large plateau that is between 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level (Fig. 2). Elevations rise over 8,000 feet in the Nyika Plateau in the north with the plateau dominating the west of the country and dropping down to the Great African Rift and Shire valleys in the east and south. In the south-eastern regions of Mt. Mulanje elevation is about 10,000 feet, and at Mt. Zomba 7,000 feet. The Shire highlands in the south are the lowest area in the country with elevations extending from 2,000 to 3,000 feet.

17. Climate-related vulnerability is primarily a function of landscape stabilizing factors which is directly related to topography. The types of vulnerabilities are thus affected by the landform, in that a flat area would suffer different problems compared with an area with steep slopes and high mountains. The topography of Malawi is such that there are highlands, escarpments and plains, all having different problems (e.g. short-term strong water flows with low debris contents, torrential flows with high debris contents and slow moving or standing water with low debris contents over longer periods respectively), and requiring different solutions as discussed in the guidelines in climate adaptations.

3.3 General Climate – Temperature and Precipitation

18. Overall, the country experiences three seasons: a cool season (May to mid-August), a hot season (mid-August to November), and a rainy season (November to April), with rains continuing longer in the northern and eastern mountains. Mean temperatures . In general mean temperatures range between 18°C and 26°C (Fig. 1). A cool, dry winter season runs from May to August with mean daytime temperatures varying between 17 and 27°C, and temperatures falling between 4 and 10°C at night. A hot, dry season lasts from September to October with daytime temperatures between 25 and 37°C .

3.3.1 National

Figure 3 – Monthly Climatology of Mean-Temperature & Precipitation 1991-2020 Malawi.

3.3.2 North

3.3.3 Central

3.3.4 South

3.3.5 Area under National Administration

19. Malawi experiences large heterogeneity in rainfall regime, and there are big differences between the North, Central and South regions. Annual average rainfall varies from 725mm to 2,500mm with Lilongwe having an average of 900mm, Blantyre 1,127mm, Mzuzu 1,289mm and Zomba 1,433mm (Fig. 4).

Figure 4 – Mean annual rainfall and temperature maps of Malawi

20. Rainfall patterns are heaviest along the coast of Lake Malawi where precipitation is heaviest (averaging 1600 mm annually); the rest of the country’s rainfall ranges between 750 and 1000 mm annually. Overall, the country experiences three seasons: a cool season (May to mid-August), a hot season (mid-August to November), and a rainy season (November to April), with rains continuing longer in the northern and eastern mountains (Fig. 4).

3.4 Socio-economic Context

21. Malawi’s is relatively a peaceful country although its development agendas face multi-pronged challenges including poverty, malnutrition and food insecurity, low literacy rate, vulnerability to external shocks such as weather and health, environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity and energy insecurity. The country remains one of the poorest in the world despite making significant economic and structural reforms to sustain economic growth. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, employing nearly 80% of the population, and it is vulnerable to external shocks, particularly climatic shocks. However, poverty and inequality remain stubbornly high. The latest poverty figures show the national poverty rate increased slightly from 50.7% in 2010 to 51.5% in 2016, but extreme national poverty decreased from 24.5% in 2010/11 to 20.1 percent in 2016/17. Poverty is driven by low productivity in the agriculture sector, limited opportunities in non-farm activities, volatile economic growth, rapid population growth, and limited coverage of safety net programs and targeting challenges.

22. Real GDP growth is projected to grow at 3.3% in 2021 and 6.2% in 2022. The prospect for a recovery to the pre-pandemic level is not expected until 2022, mainly because of the uncertain effect of COVID–19 infections. The projected growth will be driven by recovery in the tourism and agriculture sectors, exports and public investments in infrastructure (airport, roads, energy). The downside risks to the projected recovery relate to a potential second wave of COVID–19 infections, bad weather, and fiscal overruns due to revenue underperformance. The fiscal deficit is projected to widen to 10.2% in 2021, raising the debt-to-GDP ratio to 66% in 2021. The current account deficit is forecast to narrow to 12.5% of GDP in 2021 as exports rebound, then tick up to 12.9% in 2022. A rebound in domestic economic activity and a projected increase in oil prices may have pushed inflation from 8.8% in 2019 to an estimated 9% in 2020, but improved food production should help bring it down to 7.8% in 2022.

3.5 The governmental, institutional and political contexts

23. Analysis of the country’s political economy can provide a valuable approach to address the variety of adaptation opportunities and challenges involved in mainstreaming the adaptation options into existing policy, planning and budgetary processes. Within the political economy policymaking requires the combination of many policy interventions and does not rely on a ‘silver bullet’ or blanket solutions.

24. To begin with, climate change planning in the country was initially driven by adhoc institutional arrangements – such as technical working groups and steering committees – to develop and coordinate climate change through the NAPA. In recent years, such arrangements have been institutionalised, allowing for a more programmatic approach at all levels. The NAP process will have to operate within these institutional contexts.

National Level Structure

25. The GoM established a clear institutional framework for climate change coordination at national level. The NAP will have to be implemented in accordance with this institutional structure (Figure 2).

Figure 5 – Institutional arrangement for climate change management in Malawi (Source: Malawi Climate Change Management Policy, 2016).

26. The country does not need to create a totally new institutional arrangement for implementation of the NISSAP. The Ministry of Forestry Natural Resources leads on climate change policy development in Malawi This is. exercised through the Environmental Affairs Department (EAD) that is responsible for coordinating national and international climate change related issue . The Department of Climate Change and Meteorological Services (DCCMS) collaborates with EAD to coordinate national and international climate change issues. EAD also coordinates closely on climate ministries and stakeholders change with the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Other ministries and stakeholders Water Development (MAIWD), Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) and Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development (MoFEPD). The Department of Disaster Management Affairs’ (DoDMA) coordinates the implementation of Disaster Risk Management (DRM) at national level and is responsible for preparedness and response to weather and climate related disasters such as droughts and floods. DoDMA is also drafting a National Resilience Strategy which will include climate resilience.

27. In 2009 the Ministry of Economic Planning and Development was given the mandate to coordinate climate change activities under the National Climate Change Programme (NCCP). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), and the World Food Programme (WFP) then supported the NCCP. National Climate Change Technical and Steering Committees largely supported and directed activities of the NCCP.

28. District and Local Level Structures: Rationale for focusing adaptation at district level roots in recognition that, the district represents the level where participation and empowerment of vulnerable individuals and communities is most feasible and is the level where opportunities for collective action and accountability ensue. Key stakeholders are also better able to interface with each other, and, more importantly, with the communities they serve. It is at this level that adaptation outcomes and impact can be measured directly. In this respect the role of local governments facilitate the integration of adaptation innovation and in creating a supportive environment for implementation of NAP at grassroot level.

29. There are policy opportunities at district level to integrate adaptation to climate change but requires capacity building. The Government of Malawi adopted a Decentralization Policy in 1996 to devolve authority for managing development projects and programmes at district level. The District Council is the focal point for district level policy and programme development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. All projects at District level are overseen by the District Council for strategic direction, inter-sectoral coordination and policy guidance, overseeing of implementation of policy decisions, endorsement of consolidated annual work plans and budgets, and monitoring of progress. The District Executive Committee (DEC), headed by the District Commissioner (DC), provide overall leadership of the at the district level. The DEC is composed of technical staff from Government Departments, civil society organizations and other stakeholders. The DEC provides technical direction in the management of NAP and projects. It is directly responsible for facilitating formulation and implementation of the District Development Plans. Under the NAP, each DEC has sub-committees for the key sectors including the District Environmental Sub Committee (DESC) which is responsible for issues of environmental management, CC, forestry and other natural resources. The secretariat to the DESC is in the Directorate of Planning & Development that is able to ensure that CC issues are mainstreamed throughout the District’s programmes. The DESC are responsible for preparing consolidated Annual Work Plans and Budgets for review and approval by the DEC and in turn by the District Council. It will also be responsible for conducting physical progress and policy reviews in addition to facilitating the formulation of new policies. Implementation of NAP projects and programmes at area level will be channelled through the Area Development Committee (ADC) headed by the Traditional Authority. At village level, it will be through the Village Development Committee (VDC) headed by the Group Village Headmen (GVH). In cases where sector specific committees for particular projects exist, implementation of the projects will be done by the ADC and VDC in collaboration with the committee. Communities overseen by the GVH will not only be responsible for implementation of the NAP projects.

30. Implementation of the NAP has various entry points for mainstreaming at different planning levels most especially within the district development planning system (DDPS). Important characteristics of the DDPS which makes it flexible to mainstreaming climate change include:

• District-focused: All the planning, implementation and management of development activities is done within the district and by district structures. Hence, the district is empowered to facilitate and decide its own development process depending on needs.

• People-centered: The DDPS considers building capacity of individuals and their communities/institutions an important undertaking.

• Bottom-up: The District Development Planning System recognizes that local communities should not be told what to do but should formulate their own development agenda. Outsiders are just facilitators of the process, to strengthen the local capacities.

• Community Participation: The DDPS ensures that the planning and management of the development process benefits from representation, input and decision-making of the local communities.

Figure 6 – The District Development Planning System. For each of the components of the DDPS, consideration for mainstreaming climate change adaptation is feasible.

3.6 Challenges for institutional coordination

31. Coordination between government agencies has been repeatedly cited as a challenge. For example, the Department of Disaster Management Affairs (DoDMA), the National Disaster Preparedness and Relief Committee (NDPRC) and the National Disaster Preparedness and Relief Fund all have responsibility for disaster risk management, which includes climate related hazards. This can make it unclear on where responsibility for climate variability ends and responsibility for climate change starts. This can make it difficult, especially for external agencies and development partners, to know which government institution or agency is best placed to coordinate NAP activities. Any lack of consensus on which GoM department is best placed to coordinate climate change issues runs the risk of negatively affecting relationships of NAP related sectors. The role of Government ministries, departments and agencies is to provide policy direction and strategic direction in the particular sector of interest. Their roles also include sector-specific policy formulation, coordination of the thematic activities; monitoring, reporting and verification of project activities, capacity building across ministries and departments and tailored to the challenges encountered in the respective projects, and resource mobilisation77.

32. The GoM’s National Steering Committee on Climate Change (NSCCC) will provide strategic guidance and direction for the SPCR. The NSCCC is chaired by the Secretary to the Treasury and supported by a National Technical Committee on Climate Change (NTCCC) and a Climate Change Secretariat housed in the Environmental Affairs Department (EAD). The two primary ministries responsible for the implementation of the SPCR will be the Ministry of Finance, Economic Development and Planning, and the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change. Implementation of the projects will be through the relevant sector ministries and departments

33. The private sector has multiple relevance with regards to climate resilience although in Malawi they are seldom actively engaged to take an active role. Experience has shown that the private is affected by climate change when business operations and livelihoods are under threat. At the same time, the private sector can increase vulnerability to climate impacts through unrelated activities that add stress to resources. For example, the tobacco industry has been a culprit in exacerbating deforestation. Lastly, the private sector can provide technical, financial and social solutions to cope with the impacts of climate change.

3.7 Legal frameworks

34. The Constitution of the Republic of Malawi (1995): Environmental values have been enshrined within the Constitution of the Republic of Malawi. Chapter III; section 13 (d) of the Malawi’s constitution adopted in May 1995 stipulates four principles and objectives for managing the environment responsibly. They include: (i) prevent the degradation of the environment (ii) provide a healthy living and working environment for the people of Malawi (iii) accord full recognition of the rights of future generations by means of environmental protection, and (iv) conserve and enhance the biological diversity of Malawi.

35. National Environmental Policy (1996): The NEP was developed to guide all stakeholders in integrating environmental issues into the national socioeconomic development polices, programmes and plans. The objectives of the policy include: Promotion of efficient utilization and management of natural resources; Facilitation of rehabilitation and management of essential ecosystems and ecological processes; Enhancement of public awareness on the importance of sound environmental management; and Promotion of cooperation between Government, local communities, Civil Society Organizations and private sector in the management and sustainable utilization of natural resources and the environment. The policy also calls for the institution responsible for environmental affairs to play a facilitating, coordinating and advisory role on all environmental issues. The mandate of the policy is derived from section 13d of the National Constitution. The policy is also guided by several international conventions and treaties to which Malawi is a signatory.

36. Environmental Management Act (1996): The EMA) provides a legal framework for the protection and management of the environment, conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources. It identifies responsibilities of different stakeholders and calls for the establishment of bodies for coordination of environmental issues. The Act also calls for specific measures to deal with environmental issues such as the need for; Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for all development projects; District Environmental Action Plans; and the establishment of the Environmental Fund. Sectoral legislations such as the Forest Act, the Fisheries Act etc. carry specific details of a particular sector but they are required to conform to EMA. The EMA has been reviewed to take into consideration changing situations and provisions of the sector specific policies and legislations.

37. The Forestry Act (1997): This act replaces the one dating back to 1942 which was narrow in scope and focused on control of resources. The newer legislation embodies the spirit and intent of the National Forest Policy and it aims at protecting the rights of people who grow trees in order for them to benefit fully from their investment. Among other clauses, it contains provisions for the management of indigenous forests 1}on customary and private land; the management of reserves and protected areas; and the establishment and maintenance of woodlots and plantations. It also provides the legal framework for sustainable utilization of customary land forests/trees with particular emphasis on the formation of local institutions (Village Forest Committees) aimed at promoting organized participatory effort in forest/tree management at the grass roots level.

38. National Forest Policy (1996): The National Forest Policy of 1996 represents a significant departure from previous strategies which favoured forest protection rather than sustainable utilization of forest resources. The goal of the policy is to sustain the contribution of the national forest resources to the quality of life in the country by conserving the forestry resources for the benefit of the nation. The objective of the policy is to improve the quality of life of the Malawi population, particularly rural smallholders, and provide a stable local economy in order to reduce the degenerative impact of development on the environment that often accompanies poverty. The forest policy provides an enabling environment for making forests and tree resources available to communities on a sustainable basis thereby promoting rural development. It also provides better guidance on the roles and responsibilities of government, the private sector and rural communities in the utilization and management of forests and the linkages with other sectors and land uses. In 2003 the Forest Policy was revised in order to expand on aspects of community based forest management, including access to resources, benefit sharing, the role of traditional leaders and decentralization.

39. National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (1999): The National Fisheries and Aquaculture policy provides clear guidelines for the development of the fisheries sector. The fisheries sector plays a significant economic and nutritional role 1}to the Malawi’s population. The sector contributes 4% towards the Gross Domestic Product (Malawi Fisheries Department, 1998) and is an important source of employment, rural income, food security and import substitution. Lake Malawi is the largest inland water body and also the most important in terms of fish production, navigation and tourism in Malawi. The policy also stipulates roles and responsibilities of public and private sector and civil society organisations in the development of the fisheries industry.

40. Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1997): Fisheries Conservation and Management Act 1997 is a legal instrument that provides for the regulation, conservation and management of the fisheries of Malawi. The Fisheries Advisory Board, comprising stakeholders from a wide range of Government, quasi Government agencies, as well as the private sector, has been established and is entrusted with the function of advising the Minister on the development, conservation and management of the fisheries. The major achievement of the Fisheries Conservation and Management Act is the inclusion of local community participation in the management of the fisheries by acknowledging co-management as a legal option. This was formalized by the inclusion of subsidiary legislations such as the Beach Village Committees (BVCs) by-laws in the fisheries legislation signaling Government’s commitment to empowering local communities. The Fisheries Department has been instrumental in devolving power to the fishing community in the management of the fishery resources for sustainable agriculture and irrigation, fisheries, navigation, eco-tourism, forestry, hydropower and disaster management and environmental protection. The policy also promotes international cooperation in the management of trans-boundary waters without compromising the country’s sovereignty, security and territorial integrity; Facilitate conformity with regional and international agreements and protocols on shared water resources, catchment protection and management, and water resources monitoring; Promote coordination as a Ministry responsible for water issues with other stakeholders in the water and natural resource management sector; and Involve the private sector in both management of water resources and service delivery. Notable inclusion in the new policy is the decentralization of water resource management to basin level for the establishment of commercially oriented government owned regional river basin authorities.

41. National Water Policy (2005): The Water Resources Management Policy and strategies were developed in 1994. These were later revised to ensure that water resources management issues are adequately harmonized to make maximum contribution of water to the economic, social and environmental advancement and prosperity of the country. The new Water Policy aims to mainstream issues of water resource management, water quality and water utilization into national development. The objectives of the policy are to: Promote sustainable and integrated water resource management and development to make water readily available and equitably accessible by all Malawians; Ensure water of acceptable quality for all needs; Provide water supply and sanitation services to all at affordable cost; resources for sustainable agriculture and irrigation, fisheries, navigation, eco-tourism, forestry, hydropower and disaster management and environmental protection. The policy also promotes international cooperation in the management of trans-boundary waters without compromising the country’s sovereignty, security and territorial integrity; Facilitate conformity with regional and international agreements and protocols on shared water resources, catchment protection and management, and water resources monitoring; Promote coordination as a Ministry responsible for water issues with other stakeholders in the water and natural resource management sector; and Involve the private sector in both management of water resources and service delivery. Notable inclusion in the new policy is the decentralization of water resource management to basin level for the establishment of commercially oriented government owned regional river basin authorities.

42. National Land Policy (2002): Since independence, the GoM operated without a comprehensive land policy until 2002 when the National Land Policy was developed. The National Land Policy is the key instrument for dealing with all land issues. The goal of the policy is to ensure tenure security and equitable access to land by all citizens of Malawi in order to facilitate ecologically balanced use of land resources. The policy deals with issues of access to land, tenure security and sustainable environmental management. The key focus of the policy is on issues of land ownership, land use, land registration, national physical development plans, and establishing legal framework for land use. Other land sector policy reforms enacted since 1994 to encourage agriculture, forestry, tourism, mining and natural resource management and habitat preservation are also recognized and affirmed by this policy. The land legislation has been prepared and submitted to the cabinet for approval.

43. National irrigation Policy (2000): The irrigation services are guided by the National Irrigation Policy of 2000. Key objectives include: Increasing irrigated agricultural production and enhancing food security; Increasing incomes from irrigated agriculture and other income generating activities and increasing commercialization in irrigated agriculture both at smallholder and estate levels; and Creating an enabling environment for irrigated agriculture by facilitating and encouraging the private sector to invest in irrigation development and encourage rural communities to manage irrigation projects in order to fully utilize irrigable land in Malawi. The policy includes provisions for undertaking Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for all medium and large-scale irrigation development programmes and projects to ensure that any detrimental environmental impacts associated with irrigated agriculture are avoided or minimized. Apart from the provision on the EIA, the irrigation policy does not fully highlight key environmental sustainability issues and measures which should be considered in the planning of irrigation development.

44. Irrigation Act (2001): The Irrigation Act No 16 of 2001 makes provisions for the sustainable development and management of irrigation, protection of the environment from irrigation related degradations, and establishment of the national irrigation board.

45. National Land Resources Management Policy and Strategy (2000): The overall goal of the policy is to promote diversified and sustainable use of land-based resources both for agriculture and for other uses in order to avoid sectoral land use conflicts and ensure sustainable socio-economic development. The issues of environment are well enshrined in this policy. Specifically the policy seeks to: improve and sustain the productivity of land for agricultural and other uses through use of sound technologies to conserve soil and water resources, soil fertility improvements and respecting livestock stocking capacities of land; Promote rehabilitation of degraded lands for both agriculture and other uses with the aim of sustaining the usability of these lands; and Control the dangers of surface run-off water such as soil erosion and all its associated causative factors. The policy also promotes community awareness and understanding of the importance of sustainable utilization of land resources; Supports the development of economically and ecologically sound, and socially acceptable land management technologies; Protects and preserves ecologically sensitive areas such as steep slopes, stream banks, water-shed areas and dambos; Puts in place waste disposal measures deemed appropriate to minimize land pollution; and Promotes natural resources management, conservation and controlled utilization in order to ensure sustainable productivity of land and ecosystems. The policy also pays particular attention to the issue of bringing on board all key stakeholders at both policy formulation and implementation in order to ensure its success.

46. National Wildlife Policy (2000): The wildlife policy 2000 is part of government’s land use plan and is aligned to the National Environmental Policy as well as related policies such as lands, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, water and tourism. The goal of this policy is to ensure proper conservation and management of wildlife resources. The policy also increases sustainable utilization and equitable access to the resources and fair sharing of the benefits from the resources for both present and future generations of Malawi. The policy embraces the following objectives: Ensure adequate protection of representative ecosystems and their biological diversity by promoting and adopting appropriate land management practices that are in line with sustainable utilization considerations; Create public awareness and understanding on the need for wildlife conservation and management and also their relationship to other land use issues; Create a conducive environment for wildlife-based enterprises; Facilitate development of necessary legislation and enforcement mechanisms in order to eliminate illegal wildlife use; and Develop a cost effective legal, administrative and institutional framework for managing wildlife resources without compromising the resources’ ecological attributes.

47. National Energy Policy (2003): The government places energy supply as one of the priority sectors in the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS II). The MGDS is a nationally owned, result-oriented, medium term framework inspired by Vision 2020 and the lessons learnt from the Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. The MGDS II defines its long-term goal in energy generation and supply as to generate sufficient amount of energy to meet economic and social demands. The objectives of the Energy policy 2003 are to improve the security and reliability of energy supply; Increase access to affordable and modern technologies; Stimulate economic development and rural transformation for poverty reduction; Improve the energy sector and governance; and mitigate environmental, safety and health impacts of energy production and utilization. One of the policy goals is to reduce dependence on biomass energy from 93% in 2003 to 50%1} in 2020 with the other 50% of energy coming from modern energy sources. Consequently, the government is implementing programmes designed to promote the use of alternative sources of energy other than biomass fuel, and adoption of renewable energy technologies so as to reduce environmental degradation.

48. Decentralization Policy (1998): The decentralization policy provides an enabling environment for strengthening the enforcement machinery and decentralizing natural resources and environmental management and governance, among others. The policy puts districts in charge of planning and managing local development. As such, districts are an important entry point for integrating climate change, natural resources and environmental management into broader goals and strategies. Despite all these policies and acts being in place, we do not have effective implementation.